1-Developmental science and developmental psychopathology models have delineated

1-Developmental science and developmental psychopathology models have delineated the multilevel transactional ecology in which children grow. Human development occurs in different environments, from microsystems, such as family, to macrosystems, such as culture. The transactional model believes that shaping occurs as a child constantly interacts in nested ecologies. DP can be viewed as a developmental science that focuses on understanding variations and behavioral adaptation over the life course. Developmental science studies changes in living organisms as they form, mature, and decline. (Luke et al., 2021).
Biological factors, including genes, neurotransmitter imbalances, brain structure and function, stressful life events, and biological rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle, are associated with developing some psychiatric illnesses. People with psychiatric disorders are easily identified by their behavior, abnormal cognitive function, and emotion, as may be displayed in depression by a depressive mood. Different brain parts perform various tasks, such as motor activities, attention, language, verbal and nonverbal activities, executive functions, and more. A dysfunction in any part of the brain can lead to psychiatric problems. For instance, the Amygdala controls fear response, and the cingulate gyrus controls emotions; both areas are linked with anxiety disorders (Jackson & Milberg, 2018).
Personal and social-cultural factors include family dynamics, whereby some people experience post-traumatic stress disorder because they were abused or neglected at some point in the developmental stage. People with very stressful jobs have a higher risk of developing depression than those with less stressful jobs. Studies have also shown that people who are gay, Lesbians, and bisexual are more prone to suicidal ideation and substance abuse and at higher risk of mental disorders compared to heterosexual individuals. Social factors such as social isolation, bullying, racism, sexism, poverty, and violence are risk factors for developing depression and anxiety disorders. Poor people, unemployed individuals, and people of low socio-economic status are at greater risk of developing psychiatric conditions (Cheung & Mak, 2018). Cultural practices and religious beliefs define how people behave and relate to each other. Some cultures discriminate against the mentally challenged and their families pushing them deeper into social isolation. On the other hand, some religious beliefs attribute mental illness to a curse or sin the person might have committed, making it hard for individuals to seek medical attention (Decety & Holvoet, 2021).
Psychological factors
Environment and exposure can influence and alter an individual’s mental status during human development. Some psychiatric conditions, such as depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar are attributed to genes. External influences, such as diet, stress, illness, or trauma, experienced by a pregnant mother can affect the unborn child in utero by altering the biology of the developing child before birth. Experiences in early childhood are regulated by caregivers, including nurses or other persons providing care. Children’s growth is associated with interactions with systems through play, school, work, and social relationships, which shape their mental capabilities and determine how they respond to specific individuals or systems (Masten & Kalstabakken,2018). Research has shown that children raised under incredibly harsh environments differ in brain structure and function, especially around the corticolimbic system, and are at a greater risk of developing psychopathology. In the same way, children whose loving parents, peers, friends, and teachers nurture develop more healthy relationships and are more productive in society (Luke et al., 2021). Resilience is the capacity to remain strong when faced with challenging situations, and human resilience is built in relationships and social support (Masten, 2019).
2-Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology
Several factors, such as interpersonal, neurobiological, genetic, sociocultural, psychological, and neuroscientific factors, influence psychopathology in various ways. First, phenotypic, and genetic factors are known to influence human behavior (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). A hereditary link has been established to influence about 10% of developing schizophrenia in first-degree relatives. In the same case, the monozygotic twins’ chance is increased to about 50% (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). For bipolar disorder, first-degree relatives are at a higher risk than the general population. Genetic factors also influence the risk of psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety and depression. The environment is known to influence gene expression and is considered a risk factor for the development of certain illnesses.
Similarly, developmental, emotional, cognitive processes, and psychological factors influence the development of psychopathology. Anxiety and depression are majorly caused by psychological factors such as faulty impairments, beliefs, and biases. Cognitive impairment is a common manifestation of mental illness. The association between cognitive impairment and mental health issues is not clearly understood (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). Emotional and relational processes also influence the development of psychopathology. Across the lifespan, childhood, puberty, and adolescence have been shown to affect how individuals cope with stress (Butcher & Kendall, 2018). The changes during these developmental stages must be considered to elucidate their full impact on psychopathology.
Other cultural and social factors also influence the development of psychopathology. Fonagy et al. (2022) established a psychopathology cultural development approach integrating how culture and social factors affect cognitive development, the intersubjective nature of human capacities, and how humans communicate or learn their culture and its impact on social functioning and regulation. The development of a child may be affected if he is brought up in an environment with scarce resources. Poverty during childhood has been linked with an array of psychiatric issues in the later periods of life (Butcher & Kendall, 2018; Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). These include PTSD symptoms and depression. Immigrants are more likely to be admitted to mental health facilities compared to the normal population. Besides, social life and academic life pressures also influence psychopathology, with contributory factors being academic difficulties, isolation, and poor interactions in the academic world.